How do we transform reluctant students into inquisitive historians and make the past feel tangible? How do we spark a student’s journey into curiosity and develop an understanding about others as well as ourselves? For me, centering learning around a meal is just the thing.
As I serve up a classroom exploration into Chinese Canadian culinary history, I invite students to choose a food they enjoy and to reflect on the following questions to begin our specific inquiry:
Chop Suey, [Photo credit: Eli Hodapp from Naperville, United States - Flickr, CC BY 2.0,] https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2734782
Growing up in a traditional Chinese family, the language of love is food. A common Cantonese greeting used to be: “Have you eaten yet?” Although this phrase has faded from the vernacular, these words reveal a sense of warmth and care for the well-being of others.
Personal narratives often highlight how food bridges the gap between cultures and invites personal experiences into the classroom. Retired reporter Craig Macinnis recalls seeking out beef chow mein in Toronto after concerts, inspired by popular culture references.
“[As] teenagers we loved trying Chinese food, even though we were novices... I always ordered beef chow mein or egg foo young because I recognized these dishes from popular culture. Warren Zevon’s hit “Werewolves Of London” had the line: "Gonna get himself a dish of beef chow mein." That sealed the deal for us - we wanted to try it too.”
For Lesa Hannah, a first generation Chinese-Canadian, food represents a family legacy. Her grandparents founded The Cozy Restaurant and Tavern, a St. Catharines institution. This business provided more than a livelihood; it served as a childcare hub and a home, remaining family-run for sixty years.
“Grandpa, originally from China, came to Canada by way of Hong Kong. Here, he learned English, washed dishes, and saved up enough to bring his wife over. Their business, The Cozy, was originally a coffee shop that served typical diner fare such as burgers and fries. By the 1970s, they converted this into a Chinese restaurant. This was more than just a family run business. This was where my parents would drop off my brother and me because they had to work. An apartment was built in the back of the building as part of an expansion and it became my grandmother’s place. The business remains family-run today, with my aunt at the helm.
Early immigration from China to what is now Canada started in 1788, over 200 years ago. Shortly after Confederation, the promise of a cross-Canada railway was achieved through the recruitment and work of Chinese labourers. After the completion of the railroad, xenophobia, fears of economic competition and job loss led many BC residents to seek to disenfranchise and limit Chinese-Canadians’ and Chinese immigrantsʼ rights. In 1885, the Canadian government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, which charged a “head tax” and legalized categorical exclusions on Chinese immigrants.
In 1923, the Chinese Immigration Act was further amended to essentially act as a ban on Chinese people’s entry - it would be the only such law enacted against a group, and would remain law until 1947. This Act dimmed hopes for family reunification and limited future marital prospects for unmarried men. It also resulted in disenfranchisement which left people stateless. Miscegenation laws, which prevented contact between Chinese men and non-Chinese women, also criminalized interracial relationships.
An unexpected outcome of this legislation was the birth of Chinese-Canadian food.
As any food historian will attest to, food tells a unique story about immigration, settlement and assimilation. Chinese-Canadian food certainly demonstrates the will to adapt and survive in a challenging, and at times, hostile environment.
Chinese-Canadian food, colloquially referred to as Chop Suey cooking, includes items such as chow mein, lemon chicken, and egg rolls. These are significantly different from dishes in Chinese regional cuisine. Chop suey cuisine, while ubiquitous in food courts and Chinese take out businesses, is a rarity in fine dining in Toronto and Vancouver, where discerning diners prefer authenticity over nostalgia.
But can Chinese-Canadian food be inauthentic when it is tied to the identity of early Chinese immigration? This style of cooking is rooted in resilience and resourcefulness, born from anti-Asian sentiment and eventually key to helping a marginalized group establish roots in North America. The ubiquity of Chinese cafés in small town Canada reveals a lot about the entrepreneurial spirit of early Chinese immigrants.
Out-of-work Chinese railway workers could only find employment in laundries or restaurants. Many of these migrant workers opened cafés in small towns where they were often the only Chinese people in the area.
Cooks were self-taught or learned how to cook during their stint working on the building of the CPR. Carrots, celery, and bean sprouts–readily available ingredients–figure prominently in chop suey and egg rolls. Menus in a Chinese-owned café included both traditional diner fare and Chinese-Canadian meals that appealed to a Western palate without being overly exotic.
Early Chinese-Canadian cafés did not just provide these men with a livelihood; they also helped maintain remittances for families still living in China. As difficult and lonely as life was in Canada, families relied on these earnings as a means of survival during civil unrest, food shortages and crushing poverty. Moreover, returning to China meant the likelihood of being denied re-entry to Canada and alas, a loss of income. As a consequence of government policies of the time, early generations of migrants had no hopes of family reunification.
These cafés also became the foundation of benevolent societies where men could seek camaraderie, establish kinship ties and receive financial support. Those experiencing hardship could reliably seek mutual aid through the network of bachelor-orphans in these communities. These gathering places became the heart of what would be Chinatown, regardless if they were situated in larger cities or small towns.
Chinese Benevolent Association Buildings, Victoria, BC. By Michal Klajban - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=70248565
An important turning point in the history behind Chinese Canadian restaurants is how they became part of the entire community. Customers came for more typical diner fare such as grilled cheese sandwiches or burgers. But for family occasions such as anniversaries, birthdays or holidays, they would celebrate by ordering from the Chinese-Canadian section of menus.
For Lesa Hannah, her grandparents’ business was the foundation for subsequent generations of their family. Hannah remembers learning how to ride a bike in the restaurant and of growing up with her cousins in St. Catharines. The Cozy Restaurant was an extension of family life, with many members pitching in to help out when needed. The restaurant celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2024 and is now run by one of her aunts.
So while Chinese-Canadian food offers a taste of nostalgia for many, it’s also a reminder of the impact of Canada’s immigration laws, and how early Chinatowns would grow across the country, especially after 1947 when oppressive immigration laws were finally lifted.
Chop suey cooking maintains its retro appeal today; it’s comfort food that evokes special memories for a generation of diners who are aficionados of chicken balls in red sauce.
The history of these restaurants is quite remarkable. These businesses provided an entry point for migrant workers who rebuilt their lives after experiencing upheaval and uncertainty in their country of origin and overcame racism and discrimination in their adopted land.
At the conclusion of our inquiry through culinary and Canadian history, I make sure students have an opportunity to taste, and at times prepare the dishes that inspired our learning.
I have had students watch me put together a World War I trench stew. (Despite some concerns about its colour, some students ate it, declaring “This isn’t that bad.”) I have also had kids wrapping spring rolls to understand the ubiquity of Chinese cafés across Canada.
This hands-on, experiential conclusion to our learning gets students excited to return for a second helping of history on their plates.
Spring rolls. [photo credit:By Ewan Munro from London, UK - Pearl Liang, Paddington, LondonUploaded by tm, CC BY-SA 2.0] https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24282995
Chop Suey Nation: The Legion Café and Other Stories from Canada’s Chinese Restaurants - Ann Hui
Author Ann Hui visits Chinese-Canadian businesses across the country. These are the stories of folks who run their businesses with a strong sense of commitment and perseverance. The origin stories of these businesses illuminate the push and pull factors which attract newcomers to Canada. The stories that really stand out are the ones about Chinese cafés in remote communities.
House Special (5 part series)
Host Jacky Kai Ellis travels across the country to visit various Chinese-owned restaurants. This five part series features several family businesses, some of which are still led by original owners and some which are now multi-generational businesses. Lots of great footage of Western Canada which is truly the birthplace of Chinese-Canadian cuisine. Who knew that Ginger Beef was invented in Calgary?
The Ward - edited by John Lorinc, Michael McClelland, and Ellen Scheinberg
The Ward was a downtown neighbourhood in Toronto that was an “arrival city” for new immigrants. This included Chinese men whose laundries posed an economic threat to rival businesses. John Lorinc’s collection of essays provide multiple perspectives on what living in The Ward meant to newcomer groups such as the Chinese, the Irish, freed Blacks from the US, and Jews.
The History of Jewish Families Eating Chinese food on Christmas
This is an excellent piece about how North American Jewish families incorporated Chinese food into their own family celebrations. In major urban centres, Jewish and Chinese neighbourhoods often were established situated in close proximity to each other. The two groups shared similarities with respect to discrimination, establishing roots, and building community.